These archives contain extracts from discussions held on the UK Midwives and Consumers email list, a discussion group for people interested in midwifery in the UK. Open to midwives, students, mothers, and anyone interested in improving maternity services in UK. Posts in these archives express the views of the individual authors, and not those of the Association of Radical Midwives.
(For discussions from the UK midwifery list, see our page on Episiotomy)
Allen, R. E. Hosker G. L. et al (1990). Pelvic Floor Damage and Childbirth: a neurophysiological study. British Journal of Obstetric Gynaecology. 97:770-779.
Angioli, R. Gomez-Marin, O. et al (2000) American Journal Obstertric Gynaecology. May;182(5):1083-5
Begley, C. M. (1986) Episiotomy - use or abuse? Nursing Review 4:4-7
Childress, J. F. (1982) Who Should Decide? Paternalism in Health Care. Oxford University Press. New York
Combs, C.A. Robertson, P. A. Laros, R. K. (1990) Risk Factors For Third-Degree and Fourth-Degree Perineal Lacerations in Forceps and Vacuum Deliveries. American Journal Obstetric Gynaecology. 163:100-104.
Draper, J. Newell, R. (1996) A Discussion of Some of the Literature Relating to History, Repair and Consequences of Perineal Trauma. Midwifery Sep;12(3):140-5
East, C. Webster, J. (1995) Episiotomy at the Royal Women's Hospital, Brisbane: a comparison of practices in 1986 and 1992. Midwifery. Dec;11(4):195-200
Fernando, B. Leeves, L. et al (1995) Audit of the relationship between episiotomy and risk of major perineal laceration during childbirth. British Journal Clinical Practice. Jan-Feb;49(1):40-1
Flynn, P. Franiek,J. et al. (1997) How can second-stage management prevent perineal trauma? Critical review. Canadian Family Physician. Jan 43(1):73-84
Friese, K. Labeit, Runkel, S. et al. (1994) Routine Versus Selective Episiotomy. Lancet; 343:486-487
Goer, H. (1995) Obstetric Myths Versus Research Realities. Bergin & Garvey.
Goetsch, M. F. (1999) Postpartum Dyspareunia. An Unexplored Problem. Journal Reproductive Medicine. Nov;44(11):963-8
Haadem, K. et al. (1998) Review of the Literature on Advantages and Disadvantages: Episiotomy: only limited protection against ruptures--time for a revision? Lakartidningen. Sep 30;95(40):4354-8
Hodnett, E. D. (1999) Continuity of Caregivers for Care During Pregnancy and Childbirth (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library, Issue 3, Oxford: Update Software
Hordines, K. Bersjo, P. (1993) Severe Lacerations after Childbirth. Acta Obstetric Gynaecology. 72:413-22. Cited in: Low, L. et al (2000) Clinician Specific Episiotomy Rates: Impact on perineal outcomes. Journal of Midwifery & Women's health. Vol 45, No 2. Mar/Apr.
Lede, R. L. Belizan, J. M. Carroli, G. (1996) Is Routine Use of Episiotomy Justified? American Journal Obstetric Gynaecology. May;174(5):1399-402
Levy, V. (1998) Facilitating and Making Informed Choices During Pregnancy: a study of midwives and pregnant women. University of Sheffield (unpublished PhD thesis)
Lidz, C. W. Appelbaum, P. S. (1988) et al. Two Models of Implementing Informed Consent. Intern Medicine. 148:1385-1389
Lydon-Rochelle, M. T. Albers, L. et al. (1995) Perineal Outcomes and Nurse-Midwifery Management. Journal Nurse Midwifery Jan-Feb;40(1):13-8
Myrfield, K. Brook, C. Creedy, D. (1997) Reducing Perineal Trauma: implications of flexion and extension of the fetal head during birth. Midwifery Dec;13(4):197-201
O'Driscoll, K. Meagher, D. (1981) et al. Traumatic intracranial haemorrhage in firstborn infants and delivery with obstetric forceps. British Journal Obstetrics & Gynaecology.; 88:577-581.
Renfrew, RJ. Hannah, W. et al. (1998) Practices That Minimize Trauma to the Genital Tract in Childbirth: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Birth. Sept 25(3):143-160
Reynolds, J. L. Yudkin, P. L. (1987) Changes in the management of labour: 1. Length and management of the second stage. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 136:1041-1045.
Robinson, J. N. Norwitz, E. R. (1999) Episiotomy, operative vaginal delivery, and significant perinatal trauma in nulliparous women. American Journal Obstetrics & Gynecology. Nov;181(5 Pt 1):1180-4
Russell, K. P. Biswas, M. K. (1991) The Course and Conduct of Normal Labor and Delivery. In: Pernoll ML, ed. Current Obstetric and Gynaecologic Diagnosis and Treatment. 7th ed. Norwalk, CT: Appleton & Lange, 198-224.
Sleep,J. Grant,A et al. (1984) West Berkshire Perineal Management Trial. British journal Medicine. Vol 289. pp587-590.
Smith, A. R. Hosker, G. L. et al (1989) The Role of Pudendal Nerve Damage in the Aetiology of Genuine Stress Incontinence in Women. British Journal Obstetrics & Gynaecology. 96:29-32.
Sweet, B. (1997) Mayes' Midwifery; A textbook for midwives. 12th ed. Balliere Tindall. London.
Stamp, G. E. (1997) Care of the Perineum in the Second Stage of Labour: a study of views and practices of Australian midwives. Midwifery. Jun;13(2):100-4
Wagner, M. (1994) Pursuing the Birth Machine. Ace Graphics.
Way, S. (1995) The meaning of episiotomy: a review of the historical and contemporary literature. MIRIAD. Mother & Infant Research Unit, University of Leeds. http://www.leeds.ac.uk/miru/miriad/home.htm
Wong, S.F. Ho, L.C. (1998) Labour Outcome of Low-Risk Multiparas of 40 Years and Older. A case-control study. Australian & New Zealand Journal of Obstetric Gynaecology. Nov;38(4):388-90
Woolley, R. J. (1995) Benefits and Risks of Episiotomy: A Review of the English - Language Literature Since 1980. Obstetrical and Gynaecological Survey. Vol. 50, num. 11, CME Review Articles # 32 & 33, pp. 806-835. Nov.
Yancy, M. K. Herpolsheimer, A. et al. (1991) Maternal and neonatal effects of outlet forceps delivery compared with spontaneous vaginal delivery in term pregnancies. Obstetrics & Gynecology. Oct;78(4):646-50
Episiotomies actually constitute a risk factor for 3rd & 4th degree tears (Helewa M (1997) Episiotomy and severe perineal trauma: of science and fiction. Journal of the Canadian Medical Association 156(6):811-813;
Eason E & Feldman P (2000) Much ado about a little cut: is episiotomy worthwhile. Obstetrics & Gynaecology 95(4):616-18)
http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/320/7227/86
http://www.acog.org/from_home/publications/press_releases/nr03-31-00-2.htm#one
Maier. J. S., and Maloni, (1997). Nurse advocacy for selective verses rountine episiotomy. Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecologic,and Neonatal nursing, 26(4), 155-161.
Moses, F. (1993) Episiotomy versus perineal tear: which is less traumatic? British Journal of Nursing 1(15), 758-761.
Renfrew, M. J.,Hannah, W., Albers, L. and Floyd, E. (1998). Practices that minimize trauma to the genital tract in childbirth: a systemic review of the literature. Birth: Issues in Perenatal Care and Education, 25(3), 143-160.
Sleep, J., Grant, A., Garcia, J., Elbourn, D., Spencer, J., and Chalmers, I. (1984) West Berkshire Perineal Management trial. Journal of British Medicine, 289, 587-590.
Hueston, WJ. (June 1996)Factors associated with use of episiotomy during vaginal delivery. Obstetrics and Gynecology 87 (6):1001-5.
Klein, MC; et. al. (Sept 1994) Relationship of episiotomy to perineal trauma and morbidity, sexual dysfunction, and pelvic floor relaxation. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 171(3):591-8.
Klein, MC; et. al. (Sept 1995) Physicians' beliefs and behaviors during a randomized and controlled trial of episiotomy: consequences for women in their care and satisfaction with the birth experience. Canadian Medical Association Journal 153(6): 783-6.
Midline episiotomy and anal incontinence: retrospective cohort study.
Lisa B Signorello; and others.
British Medical Journal, vol. 320, 8th January, 2000,
p86-90.
Taking part in this study were: 209 primiparous women who received an episiotomy,
206 who didn't receive an episiotomy but experienced a second, third or fourth degree laceration, and
211 who experienced either no laceration or a first degree perineal laceration.
Women who had episiotomies had a higher risk of
faecal incontinence at three and six months postpartum compared with women
with an intact perineum. Compared with women with a spontaneous laceration,
episiotomy tripled the risk of faecal incontinence at three months postpartum,
and doubled the risk of flatus incontinence at three months and six months
postpartum. The effect of episiotomy was independent of maternal age, infant
birth weight, duration of second stage of labour use of obstetric
instrumentation during delivery, and complications of labour. Authors conclude
that midline episiotomy is not effective in protecting the perineum and
sphincters during childbirth and may impair anal incontinence.
Thanks to Angela Cross for providing this list.
AH updated 29 October 2002